Other religions from the perspective of Hinduism

There have been an innumerable number of religions mankind has witnessed. Especially in the ancient Indian subcontinent regions, there existed a spectrum of religions all the way from completely ritualistic to purely philosophical. Although many of these have gone out of practice, some of them have been included as part of the present-day religions.

It can never be said that any religion is wrong, for a simple reason that there always have been a number of followers under each of them, where people found fulfillment.  A good religion should not be selfish and has to be focussed on the larger society.

During the time of Adi Sankaracharya, there have been references to 72 different religions that were followed in the regions of the Indian subcontinent. Based on their characteristics,  Adi Sankaracharya refined some of them, re-defined some, selectively accepted some, and rejected others.

There were religions with different primary deities, such as:

• Śiva, Vishnu, etc. 
• Brahma - Hiranyagarbha Religion
• Indra - Lord of all the divine beings (Devas) 
• Kubera - Lord of wealth
• Manmatha - God of love
• Yama - God of death
• Pitr - Ancestors
• Bhoota, Vedāla, etc. (Paranormal entities)
• Guna - Attributes
• Kāla - Time

There were another 20-25 with solid philosophies. Some of them are listed below. Most of these have been practiced since time immemorial. However, there have been proponents of these philosophies who are credited for reviving them. According to the Vedic religion, these are incomplete, yet some portions were redefined and accepted to some extent. 

Sānkhya:

The main proponent of this religion is attributed to Sage Kapila. In this religion, Prakṛti and Purusha are two parallel realities. Starting from Prakṛti, twenty-four tattvas (principles) are defined. These are considered the basis of the material world. In some sense, they can be considered as the natural elements that constitute the universe. The creation is the outcome of various combinations of three Gunas or qualities, viz., Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas. However, all these are insentient. The only entity that is sentient is the Purusha. The goal of a Jīva (an individual) is to discard all the twenty-four tattvas, balance the three Gunas, and get liberated from Prakṛti to realize the Purusha within.

Although there are quite some similarities to the Vedic religion, there are many objections from the Vedantic standpoint. For instance, Vendanta claims all Ātma are one Parāmātma, which again is the same as the Brahman. In contrast, Sānkhya specifies multiple realities of Purusha. Also, Sānkhya does not accept a universal God, like Īśvara as the Vedic religion does. 

Yoga:

Yoga, popularly known as Ashtānga Yoga, is the religion that emphasizes the control of mind and the senses to attain the state of Samādhi - a state that unites one with the highest reality. As the name Ashtānga suggests, this specifies eight limbs streamlined by Patanjali in his work Yoga Sūtra.

Other than the fact that Yoga accepts a universal God, Īśvara, it resembles Sānkhya in most other aspects. Thus, it suffers the same criticism from the Vedic standpoint as that of Sānkhya.

In the present day, Yoga has become very popular where it has been accepted by modern science to some extent. Although modern Yoga schools teach this in a secular way, yet they do not consider it outside of the Hindu religion.

Nyāya:

Nyāya deals with logic and logical arguments. According to this, the world is real, and the Jīva (souls) are distinct. Its principal text is Nyāya sūtra by Gautama.

Vaiśeshika:

Vaiśeshika founded by Sage Kāshyapa is quite similar to Nyāya, where the special focus is on the distinction between the independent realities and the insentient world. Due to this special focus, known as viśesha, the religion was named thus. According to this, the world is made of undestroyable Anu (Atoms) and Paramānu (sub-atomic particles), whose combination results in the material world, and hence creation. By investigation and logic, one determines whatever is experienced is only due to the insentient Anu, and thus infers the only sentient entity is Ātma and gets liberated.

Mīmāmsa:

Mīmamsa, when mentioned as a religion on its own, refers to those who accept only the karma part of the Vedas and discard the jnāna part. The main distinction between Mīmamsa and the Vedic religion is that in the former, there is no role of Īśvara in this world, while in the latter every single aspect of the creation and the outcome of any action is due to Īśvara. However, Mīmamsa accepts the ritualistic portion of the Vedas stressing on the karma theory - for any action, there is a corresponding outcome. For instance, if one desires rainfall, by doing a specific ritual as mentioned in the Vedas, it gets fulfilled. Since any desired outcome can be obtained by religiously following rituals, it justifies the lack of any role Īśvara plays.

Mīmamsa accepts punya (merits) and pāpa (sins) incurred while doing (or not doing) certain Karmas (actions). The goal of one's life is to accrue as much puya as possible and avoid pāpa. By doing so, one goes to Svarga (Heaven), else doomed to Naraga (Hell). It strongly objects Bhakti (Devotion) or Jnāna (Enlightenment). Interestingly, according to Mīmamsa, ascetics are sinners as they have left their karmas (Vedic rituals). 

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Among other religions, a few were a mix of ritualistic and spiritual practices, such as: 

Pāsupata and Kālāmukha, which are variants of Śaivism. 

Bhāgavata and Pāncharatra, which are variants of Vaishnavism.

Some of the religions with different primary deities were misrepresented. These were refined or re-defined to be accepted by the Vedic schools (see here to learn more). They are:

Gānapatyam - Lord Ganapathy (or Vinayaka)

Kaumāram - Lord Kumara (Muruga, Kārtikeya, or Subrahmanya)

Śaivam - Lord Śiva

Śaktam - Goddess Śakṭi

Vaishnavam - Lord Vishnu

Souram - Lord Sūrya (Sun God)

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There were a few which were anti-Vedic:

Bouddha (Buddhism):

This is one of the most popular religions in the world. The main proponent is Gautama Buddha. Although it accepts the basic attributes of the Dharma Śastras (Righteous path) specified in the Vedas, it strongly condemns many. The main opposition of Buddhism towards the Vedas were its sacrifices, rituals, and the caste system. 

Buddhism does not accept a universal God. The purpose of life is for everyone to attain nirvāna, the enlightenment of the Buddha within, and escape the cycle of birth and death. 

The philosophical view of Buddhism comes very close to that of Advaita, however, the former concludes with voidness, that is there is nothing that is eternally real, while the latter concludes the answer is Brahman/Atman, which is eternal bliss.

Jaina (Jainism):

Although Jainism is believed to have been followed since time immemorial, the main proponent of this religion is attributed to Varthamāna Mahāvīra. Jainism specifies dharma through their religious texts called Āgamas. Similar to Buddhism, Jainism also objects many of the Vedic practices. Non-violence and service are very much emphasized. Unlike Buddhism which is atheistic, Jainism is closer to being transtheistic. According to this, the universe was never created, nor will it cease to exist. The ultimate goal of one's life is the liberation from the birth and death cycle, called Siddha, where the soul reaches the summit of the universe and stays in eternal bliss. 

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Apart from the above, there were also non-spiritual religions. One of them is Chārvaka.

Chārvaka:

Also known as Lokāyata, this religion is purely materialistic. The root word Chāru means sweetness, and vākam means words. Thus Chārvaka means the one that is sweet to hear. There are no rituals, no prayers, no philosophies, and it emphasizes that there is only this one life, enjoy while it lasts. There is no God, no Ātma (soul), nothing metaphysical. It goes by the logic, if you can't observe it, it doesn't exist.  Sounds familiar, isn't it?

This religion was founded by Lord Brihaspati, the Guru (teacher) of all the Devas - the divine beings. For this reason, this is also referred to as Bārhaspatyam. It is said that it was founded to purposefully distract the Asuras, the arch-nemesis of Devas, away from spiritualism.

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Apart from the religions that flourished in the Indian subcontinent, it is worthwhile to briefly mention some religions in the other parts of the world that bears similarities with the Vedic religion. 

They include: 

(only a selected few are listed)

Zoroastrianism:

This is one of the oldest living religions in the world which was dominant in ancient Persia. Founded by Zoroaster (a.k.a. Zarathustra), from whom it is named after, Zoroastrianism reveres Ahura Mazda, Lord of wisdom, as the supreme being. The primary collection of their texts are called Zend Avesta. Interestingly, many similarities are found with the Fire sacrificial rituals specified in Chandogya Avasta. In fact, the word Zoroaster bears similarity with the name Sourastra - A Fire worshipping clan near Gujarat (India), which in turn originated from the root word Souram - the Sun God referred in the Vedas. 

Mitra (or Mithraism):

This religion was followed in Greece and Rome, where the angelic deity Mitra is the primary God of worship. Interestingly, Mitra is also referred to in Zoroastrianism and Vedic texts. 

Ancient Egyptian Religion:

Ancient Egyptians followed a polytheistic religion with many ritualistic practices. The importance of the deities changed over at different times. The historical record, the Treaty of Rameses II with the Hittites bears the phrase "Mitra and Varuna being the witness of this treaty...". Again, Mitra and Varuna are prominent deities mentioned in the Vedas.

Māyan and Aztec Religions:

Both these are referred to as mesoamerican religions, which involved multiple deities, rituals, and sacrifices. Time is one of the most important factors, where cycles of life, death, and regeneration, are emphasized.  The cosmology of Māyan and Aztec religions divide the world into multiple heavens and netherworlds, with the earth in between. This bears similarities to the fourteen worlds mentioned in the Vedas, six heavenly worlds, the earth, and seven netherworlds.

The word Māya is derived from the word by the same name in the Vedas, which means magic. The word Aztec is derived from the morphed form of the word Āstika, which means 'of Gods'.  Evidently, the Aztecs were quite open to including deities borrowed from other religions.

Greek and Roman religions:

It is widely known that the Roman religion borrowed much from the Greek religion. Both these were polytheistic religions involving divinely beings, and a collection of beliefs, rituals, and mythology. There were Gods of the sky, of the water/ocean, the sun, and even the God of love similar to the Vedic deities. Many of the mythological stories bear similarities to that of the Ithihāsas and purānas of Hinduism. It is to be noted that many of the Purānas, including the great epic Mahābhārata, do refer to the Greeks as the people/kingdom of Yavana.

Abrahamic religions:

The major Abrahamic religions include Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Although the Abrahamic religions are known to have independent origins, there are some pieces of evidence to show a connection to the Vedic religion. One such instance is described.

In the Genesis of the Old Testament, there is the story of Adam and Eve, which is widely known. The story involves a 'Tree of Knowledge', a fig tree, whose fruit is forbidden by God to be consumed by Adam or Eve. Adam doesn't eat the fruit while Eve does. 

Mundaka Upanishad of the Vedas describes a symbolic story of two birds sitting on a fig tree, also known as Peepal tree, or Bodhi tree. Bodhi literally translates to knowledge. The story goes on to explain how one bird consumed the fruit, and the other did not, rather it just witnessed. The story concludes by saying, the tree is the body, the bird that ate the fruit is Jīva (a human soul with individuality), and the bird that witnessed is Ātma (The Supreme Soul). It is interesting to note the similarity of characters, Adam with Atma, Eve (pronounced 'Eeva' in Hebrew) with Jīva, and of course the tree of knowledge itself.

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The following table summarizes the views of some of the religions contrasting them through various attributes.

Note: This article is not intended to demean or misrepresent any religion. The sole intention is to bring out the similarities and differences of various religions with respect to Hinduism. 

References:

Deivathin Kural (Voice of God) Volume 4, Compiled by R.Ganapathy, Vanathi Pathippakam
Deivathin Kural (Voice of God) Volume 1, Compiled by R.Ganapathy, Vanathi Pathippakam

What are Vedas?

Vedas are the foundation of Hinduism. They are unarguably the oldest texts of humanity. It is the root from which other supporting texts of Hinduism stem from. They are highly protected texts, so much so that there are several restrictions on its usage. For example, Vedas cannot be either written or read, but can only be transmitted orally. For this reason, it is called Śruti - the one that is heard. It cannot be translated, nor can it be taught to the general audience. It can only be taught to selective people. Also, there is only one way to recite them, with specific intonations and notes.

Background:

There are 14 pramānās, or means of knowledge specified in Hinduism. In some cases, 4 more are added making them 18 in total. They are:

4 Vedas [Rig (Ṛg), Yajur (or Yajus), Sāma, Atharva]

6 Angas [Śikṣā, Candas (pronounced Chandas), Vyākaraṇa, Nirukta, Jyotiṣa, and Kalpa]

4 Upa-angas [Mīmāmsam, Nyāya, Purāna, Dharma Śāśtra]

4 Sa-anga-upa-angas (also called Saangopaanga) [Āyurveda, Arthasāstra, Dhanurveda, Gandharvaveda]

All except the last 4 are directly used for purifying the mind and helps in spiritual uplift. The last 4 relates to worldly affairs, which are only indirectly helpful. Out of them all, the Vedas have the primary authority. All others are only supporting texts.

Origin: 

It has been mentioned that the Vedas are originless, and are not written or composed by anyone. For this reason, they are called Apourusheyam (Not of a human/ impersonal/ authorless). 

How can this be true? Everything must have an origin, isn't it?

All the mantras (hymns) clearly mention a Ṛṣi (pronounced Rishi), to whom it is attributed. These Ṛṣis had the superhuman ability to bring the mantras to human-perceivable form - as sound vibrations. It should be noted that these Ṛṣis are mentioned as mantra dṛṣṭa (meaning, the one who 'saw' the mantras) and not mantra karta (meaning, the one who made/composed the mantras). It has been said that these mantras appeared to them after intense meditation. This is something similar to that of the discovery of America, gravity, or relativity. Although the explorers/scientists are credited for the discoveries, they did exist before.

Does that mean the Vedas originated along with the creation?

Again, if this should be the case, it should still not be claimed as originless, as it clearly originated along with the creation of the universe. Also, it has been mentioned in the scriptures that Lord Brahma created the universe using the Vedas. Thus, the Vedas seem to have been existent even before creation. This implies the existence of Vedas even before time.

There is only one other entity that we know of that is originless. This is none other than Iśvara - The God. This still implies, Iśvara could not have created the Vedas. Thus, there are two entities without origin. Certainly, they must have a relation. It has been said in the Vedas themselves that the Vedas are the breath of Iśvara. Thus, the relationship is as that of life and breath.

Volume:

The Vedas are infinite, similar to the laws of nature, and what we know of them is only a fraction of it. Thus, the Vedas are infinite and timeless.

Bharadwāja was a Ṛṣi who spent three lifetimes in learning and practicing the Vedas. Pleased by his austerity Iśvara appeared before him and granted him another span of a lifetime, and asked him what he was planning to do with it. Bharadwāja Ṛṣi replied that he will continue to learn the Vedas. No matter how many lifespans one takes, it is impossible to learn all the Vedas. To make the Ṛṣi understand this, Iśvara took pity and created three large mountains in the surrounding. He showed him a small mud lump and mentioned that the amount of Vedas he had learned thus far equals to the lump, while what is yet to be learned is as big as the surrounding mountains. 

Out of the fraction that we know, the Vedas have been compiled into four by a Ṛṣi named Bādarāyana, famously known as Veda Vyāsa (Lit. Compiler of the Vedas), who also happens to be the author of the great epic - Mahābhārata. Sri Veda Vyāsa compiled the Vedas into Rig (Ṛg), Yajur, Sāma, and Atharva. All put together, there are over 20,500 mantras, with over 1000 śākās (branches).

Each Veda comprises of several śākās. Each śākā has 3 segments, viz., Samhita, Brāhmana, and Āranyaka. Samhita, which mainly consists of mantras, is considered to be the core part of the Vedas by the mainstream scholars.

Taxonomy of the Vedas

Rig (Ṛg) Veda:

Ṛg (pronounced Rig) means praise. Thus, Ṛg Veda Samhita consists of mantras, each called ṛc, in praise of Devatas or divinely beings. There are 10170 ṛcs spread over 1028 sūktas. Overall, this Veda is subdivided into 10 mandalas or 8 aṣtakas (Similar to cantos or chapters). The Samhita starts with Agni (fire) mantra and ends with another Agni mantra. This has led some to speculate that the subject of the Ṛg Veda is fire worship. Metaphorically, fire also means the light within. The last sūkta in Ṛg Veda is a special one, whose status has been elevated to the level of International Anthem. It states "May all the people unite, be with one mind, have a common goal, and prosper". Being considered the first among the four Vedas when being listed, Ṛg Veda takes a special position among the Vedas.

Yajur Veda:

The word Yajur comes from the root word yaj, which means to worship. Thus, this Veda Samhita comprises of mantras which specifies the worshiping ways and their practical application of the mantras. This Veda specifies all the karmas (Actions/Rituals) for spiritual progress.

Yajur Veda has two versions, namely, Krishna (black) Yajur Veda, and Śukla (white) Yajur Veda. Śukla Yajur Veda came known to us through the famous sage Yājnavalkya. 

The story goes as follows. Due to a misunderstanding between him and his Guru, Vaisampāyana, the former was asked to vomit what was taught till date. Yājnavalkya did so. To avoid the vomit to touch the ground, Vaisampāyana ordered all his other disciples to take the form of Tittiri (Partridge) birds and eat them. Later, after much penance, Yājnavalkya was taught the Śukla Yajur Veda from Surya - the Sun God. Thus the name Śukla (White/Clear) was tagged, and as against this, the one followed till then (through Vaisampāyana) came to be known as Krishna (Black).

Yajur Veda hosts many sacrificial rituals. The popular 'Rudram' that is chanted in praise of Lord Shiva belongs to this Veda. It also boasts the fact that the first and the last of the 10 principal Upanishads are from this Veda. In the present day, the majority of Vedic practitioners belong to this Veda.

Sāma Veda:

The word Sāma means to appease. As mentioned earlier, intonations are particularly important when reciting the Vedas. The Ṛg and Yajur Vedas have 3 notes (pitch), called svaras. Sāma Veda, on the other hand, has 7 musical notes or svaras, also known as Sāma Gāna. The present-day music as we know it is derived from these notes. As the name suggests, the purpose of this Veda is to appease the Devatas with a combination of praise and musical notes. Many of the mantras are the ṛcs from Ṛg Veda. However, there is freedom here to extend the meter along with its associated svara.

There are actually two types of mantras in Sāma Veda. First is called the Archika, which are the ṛcs from Ṛg Veda. The other is called Gāna, which are of four types, 1. Grāma Gāna, 2. Aranya Gāna, 3. Ūha Gāna, and 4. Uhya Gāna.

Sāma Veda is considered the best of the Vedas. Lord Krishna in Bhagavad Gīta (Ch.10, verse 22) has mentioned

वेदानां सामवेदोऽस्मि

vedānām sāma-vedo 'smi

Meaning: Among the Vedas, I am Sāma Veda.

Similarly, in Lalita Sahasranama Stotra (verse 168), Goddess Lalitha (Shakti) is referred to as

सामगानप्रिया 

sāma gāna priyā

Meaning: One who loves Sāma Gāna (Sāma Veda).

Atharva Veda:

Atharva means purohit or priest. There was also a Ṛṣi by the same name. This Veda got its name of this Ṛṣi as it was only through him it was known to this world. This Veda has mantras to free oneself from dangers, destroy enemies, and the like. The mantras here are in both prose and poetry form. Apart from the regular Vedic deities, Atharva Veda hosts many others which are more fierce, including spirits and other paranormal entities. Notorious māntrikas, like voodoos, come from Atharva Veda.

Atharva Veda also comprises of mantras with the highest philosophies. Three out of the ten principal Upanishads belong to Atharva Veda. Lord Brahma being the presiding deity of this Veda adds a special value to this.

Brāhmana:

The above elaborates mainly on the Samhita portion of the Vedas. Apart from those, there are Brāhmanas and Āranyakas. 

Brāhmanas discuss the various karmas (rituals) and their associated procedures. They also discuss the meaning behind the Vedic mantras when associated with rituals. In short, this is the guide-book for putting the Vedas into practice.

Āranyaka:

Aranya means forest. As the name suggests, this part of the Veda must be practiced in the forest. It is also speculated that these were compiled by the Ṛṣis dwelling in forests. In no other part of Vedas, it is mentioned that one must go to the forest, leaving all material life behind. In fact, the majority portion of the Vedas directs us to practice the karmas while still leading a material life. In contrast, Āranyakas discuss philosophies. The philosophical meanings behind the Vedic mantras are explained here. 

Upanishads:

The end of the Āranyakas constitutes the Upanishads. They are hence called Vedānta, meaning the end portion of Vedas. If Samhitas is a tree, Brahmanas are its flowers, Aranyakas is raw (unripe) fruit, and Upanishads is the ripe fruit. In other words, one bears the fruit of the Vedas when one gets the grasp of the Upanishads. The philosophy of the highest form, explaining the non-difference between the knower and the known, is discussed here. Contrary to the other parts of the Vedas, which focus on the rituals (karmas), Upanishads stress to abandon the karmas and elevate oneself to the highest level.

Thus, the Vedas have two portions: Karma Kāndam (Ritualistic part), and Jnana Kāndam (Philosophical part), which are referred to as Pūrva Mīmāmsa and Uttara Mīmāmsa, respectively.

Conclusion:

Vedas are the most ancient and primary source of knowledge. Although the Vedas are many, and the rituals followed by their practitioners are diverse, all of these converge to a unanimous philosophy. As opposed to "this is the only way", Vedas are a practical example of "many ways for one destination".

Reference:

Deivathin Kural (Voice of God) Volume 2, Compiled by R.Ganapathy, Vanathi Pathippakam

Why not call each sect in Hinduism as its own religion?

Sects within religions are not uncommon. Almost all world religions are divided into multiple denominational families, and there are subtle differences in their philosophies. Although this is the case, it is not difficult to infer that they still belong to the same religion, quite simply because of whom they consider as the Supreme Being. Simply put, all sects that believe in the same God comes under the same religion. In the case of Hinduism, the sects do not believe in the same God. For instance, Shaivism accepts Lord Shiva as the only Supreme Being, whereas Vaishnavism believes only in Lord Vishnu. And of course, there are yet others who consider their own Gods as the only Supreme Being. 

Another point is that other world religions follow the same religious text. Again in Hinduism, the texts accepted by one may not be accepted by the other. In fact, there are objections and strong criticisms of these writings by their rivals, not to mention the differences in their philosophies.

Yet, why are they still considered as one religion? Could it be because of geographical reasons? In one of the earlier articles, the origin of the term Hindus and Hinduism being related to River Indus was discussed. Could it be said, any religious belief that had its origin in the Indian sub-continent regions be classified under Hinduism? Interestingly, there were/are several religions that had/have their origin in this region but are clearly defined as their own religions. For example, Buddhism and Jainism are a couple of those, which are still widely practiced in India and around the world, and they do not come under Hindusim.

So the question is, on what basis a religious sect is considered to be under Hinduism?

To answer this, let us consider all the religious sects under Hinduism and analyze. Although these sects have their own religious texts, none of them claim these to be their original book. Neither they claim to have established the philosophy. Invariably every single sect mentions the time-immemorial practice of the said philosophy. Most importantly, they all fundamentally accept the world's oldest scriptures - The Vedas.

Banyan trees are characterized by several aerial prop roots. As years pass by, these prop roots mature into thick, woody trunks, which merge with the primary trunk and become indistinguishable. Just like how the banyan is one tree despite its several props, Hindusim is one religion with many branches, and the Vedas is its primary trunk.

According to the Vedas, the Primordial and Supreme Being is Brahman. With respect to the creation, the same is called Iśwara. Shaivites say Lord Shiva is Iśwara and thus Brahman, while Vaishnavites say that is but Lord Vishnu. In other words, the definition of Iśwara and Brahman is the same and is as specified in the Vedas. Only the name is changed. One says Shiva, the other says Vishnu, yet another says Shakti, and so on.

It is now evident that all the denominational families in Hinduism accept Brahman as the Supreme Being and Vedas as their fundamental text. Thus any religious sect belongs to Hindusim as long as it accepts Brahman and the Vedas.

What are the different sects in Hinduism? And, why are there so many?

For any person who is new to Hinduism, it could be very confusing in the beginning to understand the various sects and their associated philosophies. Due to the apparent complexity, Hinduism is often mistaken for paganism. However, it is not an overstatement to say that Hinduism has the most profound philosophies that have ever existed in human civilization. Based on the interpretation of these philosophies there evolved different sects, and not because of the number of deities. Although the age of this religion has a role to play, the differences in interpretations are endorsed as they match people's different mindsets. 

The differences between these sects are based on the way the following entities and their relationship are defined.

a. Iśwara - The creator
b. Brahman - The fundamental substratum of the universe
c. JIva - The subjects (sentient beings, or individual souls)
d. Prakriti - The world (non-sentient beings/things)
e. Jnana - The right knowledge
f. Mokṣa - Liberation
g. MArga - The path to liberation

Although there are scores of sects each having their interpretation and justification, they can be broadly related to the following few philosophies.

The Philosophy of Duality - Dvaita:

This is the easiest philosophy to understand, which states the universe as Dual in nature. It can also be extended to denote the multiplicity (or pluralism) observed in this universe. Most of the world religions come under the category of Dvaita.

So, what is the duality? The two entities specified in Dvaita are the Creator and His/Her subjects. Due to the innumerable number of the subjects (both living and inert), this philosophy also extends itself to denote the multiplicity nature of the universe. The philosophy revolves around the attributes of the Creator and His/Her relationship with the subjects.

According to Dvaita, Iśwara - the Creator is Omnipotent, Omnipresent, Omniscient, and is the primal cause of the entire creation. In the scriptures, the term Brahman is used to indicate the fundamental substratum of the existence of the Universe. Thus as per Dvaita, Iśwara is Brahman. The closest word that relates to Iśwara with respect to other world religions is the term 'God' (or other equivalents). Here, God is a personal entity and is Saguna, endowed with attributes and qualities. The world we see is the effect of God's creation. It is this God that is Supreme and all other divine beings (demigods), sentient living beings, and inert things are all dependent on this One Universal Being. The sentient subjects or the JIvas are countably infinite and are distinct from one another. Albeit not being synonymous, 'soul' is the term that comes closest to the term JIva. Due to the lack of better words, the terms 'God' and 'soul' will be used in their respective contexts for easier understanding.

Dvaita says the world that we see is as real as it is, and objects of the world are distinct from one another, which seems quite straightforward. However, it is worth mentioning because this stands in contrast to the Advaitic school of thought which will be discussed later. The purpose of the lives of the individual souls is to offer Bhakti (Love/Devotion towards God), through prayers and offering service to God. By treading the path of Dharma (Righteousness) as specified in the scriptures, individual souls establish themselves in the service of God through Karma (Actions that are directly or indirectly associated with the service of God) and Bhakti, leading to Jnana (The Knowledge). The term Jnana in this context means realizing that the individual soul is eternally dependent on God. The individual souls get liberated from the material bondage of the world when they realize all that exists is essentially dependent on the One Universal Supreme God, Iśwara. Mokṣa is attained at the end of a Jnani's lifetime, where the Jnani is taken to the abode of Iśwara and the former engaged in the service of the latter. It is to be noted here that failure to follow the path of Dharma leads to the eternal damnation of souls.

The steps to release from the bondage of the birth-death cycle

As mentioned earlier, Dvaita specifies a Supreme monotheistic God akin to other major religions of the world. In Hinduism itself, there are different sects that can be classified under Dvaita. The most significant difference between these sects is the primary God who is considered as Iśwara. Although there are many such sub-schools, the term Dvaita is predominantly associated with the 13th-century school established by Madhvacharya, in which Lord Vishnu is considered to be the Supreme Being. Some of the other similar philosophies include Shaivam (Lord Shiva),  Gaudiya Vaishnavam (Lord Krishna), ShAktam (Goddess Shakti), and many more.

Metaphor: The Potter and the Pot - A potter makes a pot out of clay. Similar to how the clay pot is real and distinct from the potter, likewise, an equally real universe exists with its own separate essence from that of God. Thus, there are two simultaneous and independent realities that exist.

The Philosophy of Qualified Monism - VishishtAdvaita 

Qualified monism or qualified non-dualism is the school of thought that believes in all diversity subsuming to an underlying unity. Although there are many variants of this philosophy, we will explore two main streams.

Sri Vaishnavam

The main proponent of this philosophy, Ramanujacharya, is credited as an important exponent of this philosophy, with Lord Vishnu as the primary God of worship.

VishistaAdvaita specifies a qualified monism, where it supports the possibility of the JIva sharing the same nature as that of Brahman, and can reach the bliss state of God while retaining their individual identities even after Mokṣa. Here Brahman is nothing but Iśwara with all the qualities and attributes, i.e., Saguna Brahman.

As per this school, all JIvas are distinct as in Dvaita which can never be transcended, and there are different grades in them. Similar to Dvaita, the world is real and distinct. Jnana is knowing this as the truth. After Jnana, the individual treads the path of devotion through Karma and Bhakti. Only by practicing Bhakti, the JIva ultimately attains Mokṣa at the end of one's lifetime breaking away from the cycle of birth and death. Even after Mokṣa, individual souls retain their identity but eternally remain in fellowship with Iśwara.

Shaiva Siddhanta

Shaiva Siddhanta propounds a philosophy where the ultimate and ideal goal of JIva is to become an enlightened soul through Lord Shiva's grace. Although there are some similarities with respect to VishistaAdvaita of Ramanujacharya, there are some differences too. The most obvious one is that in Shaiva Siddhanta, Lord Shiva is the ultimate cause of creation, and is the only Iśwara, as opposed to Lord Vishnu as in Sri Vaishnavism. 

Metaphor: Sun, stars and the sky - In the night sky, we see countless stars. When the sun rises, the brightness of the sun occupies the entire sky, and throughout the day the stars are nowhere to be seen. It is as if the stars have merged into the brightness of the sun. Yet, stars retain their individuality which is evident every night.

The Philosophy of Monism - Advaita:

Fundamentally differing from all other viewpoints, the Advaita philosophy presents itself in sharp contrast with that of Dvaita and Vishishtadvaita. Although the roots of Advaita can be traced to a much earlier time period, the most prominent exponent of this philosophy is considered to be Adi Śankaracharya. Advaita Vedanta is arguably the oldest extant of the sub-schools of Hindu philosophies and is also the most misunderstood one. Although Advaita embraces most of the concepts accepted by Dvaita or VishishtAdvaita, it fundamentally differs from their philosophy. Literally, the term Advaita means 'without a second'. It accepts the concept of Universal Supreme Being, Iśwara, which is Saguna Brahman in accordance with that of Dvaita and VishishtAdvaita. However, it states that there exists an ultimate reality even beyond this, termed Nirguna Brahman, the One beyond any attributes or qualities. The JIva or the individual souls are just projections of this very same reality, and so is the non-sentient world. In other words, this philosophy states that all the souls are in fact, just only One Universal Soul, the Atman, which again is the same as the Universal Supreme Entity, the Brahman, and everything else is just an illusion. Due to this, the philosophy is often referred to as MAyavAda. Below is a crisp summary of this philosophy quoted from Brahmajnanavalimala (verse 20) by Adi Śankaracharya.

ब्रह्म सत्यं जगन्मिथ्या जीवो ब्रह्मैव नापरः ।
Brahma satyam jagat mitya, jIvo Brahmaiva nAparaha |

Meaning: Brahman is the only truth, the world is illusory, and that Brahman and the individual self are non-different.

The word mitya is often misunderstood to mean 'unreal' rather than 'illusory' leading to misinterpretation of the entire philosophy.

According to this, there are no distinct individual souls that exist. It is because of the power of MAya every individual 'thinks' each one is a different being, and that the world is real and distinct. One 'thinks' this way due to avidyA, or the lack of knowledge. MAya (Lit., magic), the illusory power of Iśwara, is the instrument for creation, because of which the world appears to be real, and it does so only so long as one associate with it.

Metaphor: The rope and the snake - Imagine walking alone in a dark wilderness. Suddenly you step on something that is slender, soft, and cold. In that situation, you think you have stepped on a snake. However, in a few moments with the help of ambient light, you realize that you have actually stepped on a rope. For a very brief amount of time, you were fully convinced that you have indeed stepped on a snake. The fear was real. But once you realize that it is not a snake, but only a rope, the fear is now permanently gone. But the rope is still present. Everything around you is still the same. It is just that the knowledge of the rope has destroyed the snake in it. Was the snake real or unreal? You can still step on it and feel it the same way it felt before. But now there is no more fear as the knowledge of the rope has been obtained. This knowledge is Jnana.

Metaphor: Waking from a dream - Dreaming is a very common experience everyone goes through during sleep. One may experience things that are not possible in the waking world. For instance, you may dream of flying like a bird. The physics of the dreamworld may permit a human to fly like a bird. You will be fully convinced of the science behind the flying. There is no question on the logic that is applicable in the waking world as long as you are still dreaming. The moment you wake up, you realize it was all just a dream. You still don't question the physics in the dream world, because it really does not matter. Similarly, so long as one associates oneself with this world, the logic seems perfect. The moment one gains Jnana, there is no question about the reality or logic in the world.

Thus, Advaita provides scope for every individual soul to ascend step-by-step in the path of Dharma, via Karma, Bhakti, and VichAra (questioning), ultimately leading to Jnana. Jnana here means the knowledge of the Self, which is the only thing that is real. The highlight of Advaita is that Mokṣa is nothing but obtaining Jnana, which is possible in one's lifetime itself, unlike in other philosophies where Mokṣa is possible only at the end of one's lifetime. That is, the true liberation from the birth-death cycle is instantaneous with the attaining of Jnana. It is to be noted that there is no scope of JIva merging with Brahman/Iśwara simply because merging is possible only when there is more than one entity. 

A common pitfall here is that one may interpret Advaita in a way that equates the individual soul to God. Even as per Advaita, it is blasphemous to compare JIva with Iśwara. The comparison is invalid, as Iśwara is always associated with the Saguna Brahman that has infinite attributes and qualities, while JIva, the individual soul (associated with the material world) has only an infinitesimally small fraction of it. The non-difference can be realized only by transcending these attributes by the mercy of Iśwara.

Although Advaita popularly refers to the philosophy expounded by Adi Śankaracharya, there are various nuances in this philosophy as well with subtle differences, each forming a separate sub-school on its own.

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In all honesty, it may seem confusing to a beginner to understand these in-depth and most importantly to choose which path to follow. Due to disagreements between these philosophies, it may also seem that none of them are fully satisfactory. With little effort, this confusion would fade away because, at the level of common persons like us, these differences don't matter. It can be inferred that in spite of the differences, all these philosophies do have several commonalities. The table below illustrates these. 

Entities	Dvaita	VishishtAdvaita	Advaita
Iśwara - The creator	Primal cause of creation	Primal cause of creation	Primal cause of creation
Brahman - The fundamental substratum of the universe	Saguna (having infinite attributes)	Saguna (having infinite attributes)	Acknowledges Saguna Brahman. Also specifies Nirguna Brahman beyond all attributes.
JIva - The subjects (sentient beings, or individual souls)	Countably Infinite, real, and distinct. Different from Brahman, which is never transcended. Inferior to the nature of Brahman.	Countably Infinite, real, and distinct. Different from Brahman, which is never transcended. But, shares the same essential nature.	One, and fundamentally same as Brahman.
Prakriti - The world (non-sentient beings/things)	Real and distinct.	Real and distinct.	Illusory (Appears to be real due to MAya).
Jnana – The right Knowledge	Knowing and realizing the above.	Knowing and realizing the above.	Knowing and realizing the above.
Mokṣa - Liberation	Breaking the cycle of birth and death. Achieved at the end of one’s lifetime.	Breaking the cycle of birth and death. Achieved at the end of one’s lifetime.	Breaking the cycle of birth and death. Achieved instantaneously at the moment of Jnana.
MArga - The path to liberation	To practice Dharma via Karma and Bhakti as stated in scriptures.	To practice Dharma via Karma and Bhakti as stated in scriptures.	To practice Dharma via Karma and Bhakti as stated in scriptures. In addition, Vichara (questioning) helps.

To conclude, one must follow the righteous path of Dharma as specified in the scriptures. Fortunately,  there are no contradictions in Dharma accepted by all these philosophies on what is right and what is wrong. In other words, the MArga to attain Mokṣa is the same across all these philosophies. The differences come into the picture only with respect to the highest state achieved by the individual souls. By following the instructions of a proper Guru, one should carry on their duties and allow the grace of the Lord to govern the rest.

Reference:
Deivathin Kural (Voice of God) Volume 4, Compiled by R.Ganapathy, Vanathi Pathippakam

Why does Hinduism have so many Gods?

Anyone who is new to Hinduism would have heard somewhere about the millions of Gods the religion has. It is very unfortunate that there are many naïve Hindus who do believe the multitude of Gods. The simple truth is that Hinduism specifies only one God. If that's so, what about the other millions? Let's get it clarified.

Devas - The Divine Beings:

In nature, we see wild beasts that are much mightier than human beings, outmatching the latter by sheer physical strength. In contrast, human beings are intellectually far superior to these beasts. Hinduism specifies a few others. One kind, called the Devas are divine, heavenly beings far superior to human species in both physical might as well as intellect. Similar to the different races we have, Devas are further classified into many sects, like Kinnara, Kimpurusha, Yaksha, Siddha, Sarana, Sadhya, Gandharva, etc. They are responsible for maintaining balance among the natural elements that help in the sustenance of life and creation.

Another popular classification of the Devas include 8 Vasus, 11 Rudras, 12 Adityas, and the Asvini twins, making them 33 in total [*]. Each of them has a crore (10 million) of subordinate Devas totaling their population to 33 crores. This has notoriously given Hinduism its alleged polytheistic status.

Humans and Devas have a relationship through a kind of trade. Humans need a balance of their natural environment, as in timely rain, or wish for a material need, such as health, wealth and power. On the other side, Devas by their nature depend on the sacrifices from the rituals of humans to survive, making the two interdependent. Hence, almost all of the rituals are intended to please one or more Devas for material needs through the sacrificial offerings. 

Devas and their arch nemeses Asuras churning the ocean of milk to obtain the elixir of life.

Devas have three forms. First, their divine body in the heavens called Adi Daiveeka Roopa. This form can only be perceived or interacted by humans through great Tapas (Yogic methods). Second is called Adi Boudeeka Roopa, which can be perceived in nature through our very senses. For instance, the air around us is a Deva called Vayu. Similarly, water, earth, fire, etc. are specific Devas. The third form is part of our body, called Aadyaatmika Roopa.  Surya (Sun) is in the eye, Agni (Fire) is in the mouth, Indra is in our hands, and so on. 

One may think these elements such as air, water, and fire are just inert things, and that it is irrational to consider them as divinely beings. With a little bit of understanding one can deduce that the world we are in is just one living being with all its entities connected, similar to the millions of living cells that constitute our body. It is as if thinking the blood is just a non-living fluid. Thus, it is not unreasonable to say that we are only a cell or very well just a part of it in this macrocosm. 

Although Devas are divine beings much superior to humans, they are not Gods. They do go through the pleasures and pains that are common among the other living beings.

Multiple Deities for worship:

Hinduism specifies only one God. However, this God can be perceived by humans through various forms as mentioned in the scriptures. When engaged in a specific role, God takes up a certain form. Similar to how a person takes up multiple roles, such as an engineer by profession takes up a role as a parent when caring for their child, a cook when preparing food, a sportsperson when playing, and so on,  so does God who takes up many roles such as Creation, Sustenance and Destruction. 

Lord Shiva as Nataraja (literally, Lord of Dance) in His cosmic dance. The posture symbolizes the five great attributes, viz., Creation (drum - top right hand), Sustenance (dance), Destruction (fire - top left hand), Concealing (Veiling mudra - bottom left hand), and Protection (the Abhaya mudra - bottom right hand).

In addition to these, God takes up forms that would please individuals according to their natural interests, for us to show our love in the form of Bhakti. Love can be shown towards God in several ways, as love towards our Mother, love towards a Child, loving a Friend, a King, a Hero, a Teacher, and even a Lover, again as mentioned in the scriptures.  Thus, we have multiple forms of the same God. Adi Sankaracharya has channelized these forms into six, called Shanmata: Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti, Ganesha, Surya and Skanda [*].

Lord Vishnu - Purushottama (meaning the Absolute Supreme Being) is the divine manifestation of existence; Paramatma, The Ultimate Soul.

Undoubtedly, it is the very same God that is known through various forms. Whichever is the way that is comfortable to an individual, that form is worshiped as directed by the scriptures. 

Reference:

Deivathin kural (Voice of God) Volume 1, Compiled by R. Ganapathy, Vanathi Pathippakam

Turn Around!

Bāla Ramanar - A pencil sketch

A pencil sketch of young Venkataraman at Tiruvannamalai, known better as Ramana Maharishi.

At a tender age of 16, the Boy attained enlightenment by means of self-enquiry - a simple method of pondering 'who am I?'. Many who had visited Him in His Ashram remark that His mere presence radiates such bliss that one's mind becomes still and there is nothing else around but just peace!

This great Being walked among us less than a century ago. And, it is because of the great souls like Sri Ramana Maharishi incarnate on Earth, commoners like us are reassured of the presence of the Divine.